Brief History of France

Prehistoric to Roman Gaul

• The first human settlements in the area that is now France date back to the Palaeolithic era, with cave paintings at Lascaux dating to approximately 15,000 BCE.
• 4800–3500 BCE: Neolithic peoples establish significant settlements across the region, leaving impressive megalithic monuments like the Carnac stones in Brittany.
• Around 500 BCE: The Celtic Gauls inhabit the region and develop sophisticated trading networks and cultural practices.
• 58–51 BCE: Julius Caesar’s campaigns lead to the Roman conquest of Gaul, turning the region into one of the empire’s most prosperous provinces with substantial urban development and infrastructure projects, including roads, aqueducts, and public buildings.
• 1st–4th centuries CE: A distinctive Gallo-Roman culture emerges, blending Celtic traditions with Roman practices, while Christianity gradually spreads throughout the region.

Medieval France

• 5th century CE: As the Roman Empire declines, various Germanic peoples migrate into Gaul, with the Franks eventually establishing dominance.
• 481–511: Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty creates the foundation of what will become France, converting to Christianity and establishing Paris as his capital.
• 768–814: Charlemagne, a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty, expands the Frankish Empire to include much of Western Europe and is crowned Emperor by the Pope in 800.
• 843: The Treaty of Verdun divides Charlemagne’s empire after his death, with the western portion evolving into the Kingdom of France.
• 987: The Capetian dynasty is founded by Hugh Capet, beginning the continuous rule of French kings. While the direct Capetian line ends in 1328, cadet branches (Valois, then Bourbon) continue ruling until the French Revolution.
• 11th–13th centuries: Medieval French society is structured under the feudal system, with a rigid hierarchy of nobility, clergy, and peasants, while the monarchy gradually centralises power.
• The Catholic Church plays a central role in medieval France, not only in religious life but also in education, welfare, and political affairs, with France becoming known as the ‘eldest daughter of the Church’.
• 1096–1291: French knights and nobles are prominent participants in the Crusades, with the First Crusade (1096–1099) in particular heavily influenced by French participation.

Late Medieval France

• 12th–15th centuries: The late medieval period sees important cultural developments, including Gothic architecture and early Renaissance influences contributing to intellectual life. Universities flourish in this period, with the Sorbonne in Paris becoming one of Europe’s most prestigious centres of learning, producing influential theologians and philosophers.
• 1309–1377: The Avignon Papacy sees popes residing in France rather than Rome, followed by the Great Western Schism (1378–1417) that divides Catholic loyalties.
• 1337–1453: The Hundred Years’ War arises from territorial disputes and the English crown’s claim to the French throne, resulting in devastating battles that include Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356).
• 1348: The Black Death arrives in wartorn France, killing an estimated one-third of the population and causing profound social and economic disruption.
• 1429: Joan of Arc emerges as a pivotal figure during the reign of Charles VII. She helps secure a French victory at Orleans before her capture and execution by the English in 1431.
• 1453: The Hundred Years’ War finally ends with the French regaining most of their territories and developing a stronger sense of national identity.
• 1461–1483: Under Louis XI, France undergoes significant centralisation of power, including establishing a standing army and reducing noble autonomy.

Renaissance and Religious Wars

• 1515–1547: The reign of Francis I sees the flourishing of Renaissance art, architecture, and humanism in France as he invites Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci to his court.
• 1516: The Gallican Church begins developing as a distinctive form of Catholicism that maintains independence from papal authority while remaining within the Catholic fold, formalised in agreements like the Concordat of Bologna (1516).
• 1530s: The Protestant Reformation begins gaining significant support in France, with Calvinism spreading despite official persecution and creating divisions that will lead to decades of conflict.
• 1534–1608: French exploration begins in North America with Jacques Cartier’s voyages, although permanent settlements are only established in the early 17th century with Samuel de Champlain’s founding of Quebec in 1608.
• 1562–1598: The Wars of Religion pit Catholics against Protestant Huguenots, involving religious differences and political power struggles among noble factions. The 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre sees thousands of Protestants killed in Paris and other cities, deepening religious animosity and drawing international condemnation.
• 1589–1610: Henry IV, who converts from Protestantism to Catholicism (‘Paris is worth a mass’), ends the religious wars with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which grants religious toleration to Protestants.

Age of Absolutism

• 1608–1699: French colonisation expands in North America, the Caribbean, and parts of India and Africa, establishing settlements in Quebec, Louisiana, Haiti, and Senegal, often displacing or subjugating indigenous populations.
• The 17th century also sees a flourishing of French culture, with the establishment of the Académie Française (1635) and the works of playwrights Molière and Racine, philosopher Descartes and painter Poussin.
• 1618–1648: France engages in the Thirty Years’ War and numerous conflicts with the Dutch Republic and Spain that expand French territory but strain national finances. Under Cardinal Richelieu and later Jean-Baptiste Colbert, France develops a mercantilist economic system that fosters domestic manufacturing and overseas trade.
• 1643: Louis XIV is crowned king. His reign will be the longest in European history and epitomises absolute monarchy, earning him the title ‘Sun King’ and establishing France as Europe’s dominant power. While the elite enjoy unprecedented luxury, the majority of French people are peasants who face heavy taxation, periodic famines, and limited political rights, creating tensions that will later contribute to the Revolution.
• 1682: Louis XIV centralises political power in the monarchy, reducing the influence of the nobility and establishing the magnificent Palace of Versailles as the centre of court life and government.
• 1685: Religious persecution intensifies with the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, forcing Protestants to convert, flee abroad, or practice their faith in secret.

Enlightenment and Revolution

• The 18th century sees the rise of Enlightenment thinking in France, with philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu advocating reason, individual rights, and questioning traditional authority.
• 1715–1792: Under Louis XV (1715–1774) and Louis XVI (1774–1792), France experiences economic growth but also increasing debt from wars and court expenditures, while a rising middle class seeks greater political representation.
• 1780s: Poor harvests lead to food shortages and rising bread prices, intensifying public discontent that contributes to revolutionary sentiment. Social inequality is institutionalised in the Three Estates system (clergy, nobility, and commoners), with the first two estates enjoying tax exemptions despite representing only a small percentage of the population.
• 1789: The French Revolution begins with the formation of the National Assembly and the storming of the Bastille on July 14, leading to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and ending feudal privileges.
• 1791: The Revolution profoundly impacts France’s colonies, especially Saint-Domingue (Haiti), where enslaved people lead a successful revolution against slavery and French colonial rule, establishing independence in 1804.
• 1792: The Revolution enters a more radical phase with the establishment of the First Republic in 1792, the execution of Louis XVI in 1793, and the subsequent Reign of Terror under Robespierre. Counter-revolutionary movements emerge, particularly in the Vendée region, where royalist and Catholic peasants rebel against revolutionary authorities.
• 1795–1799: In the aftermath of the Revolution’s radical phase, the Directory is established before being overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799).

French Empire to Republic

• 1799–1804: Napoleon Bonaparte emerges from the French Revolution, becoming First Consul before crowning himself Emperor in 1804, establishing the First French Empire.
• 1804–1815: Napoleon institutes significant legal, educational, and administrative reforms, including the Napoleonic Code, which influences legal systems worldwide while also ending religious persecution.
• Over the next decade, the Napoleonic Wars expand French influence across Europe but ultimately end with Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy.
• 1815–1870: The 19th century sees repeated regime changes, from the Bourbon Restoration (1815–1830) to the July Monarchy (1830–1848), the Second Republic (1848–1852), and the Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852–1870).
• 1830–1914: France expands its colonial empire throughout the 19th century, acquiring territories in Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, often through military conquest. Indigenous resistance to French colonialism occurs in various forms across the empire, from armed uprisings to cultural preservation efforts and intellectual opposition.
• Industrialisation transforms the French economy and society, creating a growing working class and urban centres while also generating labour movements advocating for workers’ rights.
• 1871: The Paris Commune, following France’s defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, represents a brief but significant experiment in worker self-governance and socialist principles before being violently suppressed, with thousands killed.
• 1870: The Third Republic is established and will last until 1940, representing the longest-lasting French regime since the Revolution.
• 1894–1906: The Dreyfus Affair, involving the wrongful conviction of a Jewish army officer, exposes deep anti-Semitism in French society and divides the country between traditionalist and progressive forces.

World Wars and Reconstruction

• 1914–1918: World War I devastates France, with much of the Western Front’s heaviest fighting taking place on French soil, resulting in 1.4 million French military deaths and extensive physical destruction. Colonial soldiers from Africa and Indochina fight for France during World War I, with over 500,000 colonial troops deployed. The Treaty of Versailles gives France control of Alsace-Lorraine and German colonies, but the war’s aftermath brings economic challenges and political instability.
• 1919–1939: The interwar period sees France struggle with economic depression, political polarisation, and anxiety about the rise of fascism in neighbouring countries.
• 1939–1945: World War II begins for France in 1939, and after the German invasion in 1940, the country is divided between German occupation in the north and the collaborationist Vichy regime in the south.
• The French Resistance includes various rebel groups working against the occupation. Charles de Gaulle leads the Free French forces from exile, maintaining France’s place among the Allies.
• 1944–1946: Liberation comes in 1944, followed by the establishment of the Fourth Republic in 1946, which faces immediate challenges of reconstruction and political instability. The post-war period sees significant economic growth (the Trente Glorieuses or Thirty Glorious Years), infrastructure development, and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state.

Modern France

• 1954: The decolonisation process accelerates after World War II, beginning with the independence of Indochina following the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu, which leads to the creation of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The Algerian War is particularly traumatic, involving extensive violence and ultimately leading to Algerian independence and the return of over one million French settlers to metropolitan France.
• 1958: Political crisis brings Charles de Gaulle back to power and leads to the establishment of the Fifth Republic with a stronger presidency, which continues to the present day.
• 1960–1966: France develops its own nuclear arsenal (’Force de Frappe’) and withdraws from NATO’s integrated military command in 1966 (rejoining in 2009), reflecting its desire for independent defence capabilities.
• Most French colonies in Africa gain independence, although France maintains significant economic, military, and cultural influence in its former territories through arrangements known as Françafrique.
• 1968: The May protests begin with student demonstrations but expand into a broader social movement when labour unions join with a general strike involving approximately 10 million workers, representing one of the largest labour actions in history. In the following decade, France will see significant advancements in labour rights, women’s rights, and cultural liberalisation, even as the immediate political demands of the movement aren’t achieved.
• 1981–1995: François Mitterrand’s socialist presidency begins with ambitious reforms, including nationalisations and wealth tax. It expands worker rights, although later shifts toward more moderate policies in response to economic constraints and European integration.

Contemporary France

• 1995–2007: Jacques Chirac’s presidency sees France’s transition to the euro currency, opposition to the 2003 Iraq War, and increasing debates about immigration and national identity. The 2005 rejection of the proposed European Union constitution in a referendum reflects growing Euroscepticism and disillusionment with political elites among segments of French society.
• 2007–2012: Nicolas Sarkozy’s presidency is marked by economic reforms, international crises, including the 2008 financial crash, and debates over immigration and national security policies.
• 2012–2017: François Hollande’s socialist presidency faces economic stagnation, high unemployment, and serious security challenges, including terrorist attacks, leading to historically low approval ratings. France experiences devastating terrorist attacks, including the Charlie Hebdo shooting, the November 2015 Paris attacks, and the 2016 Nice lorry attack, which kill hundreds and profoundly impact French society and politics.
• 2017–2022: Emmanuel Macron, elected in 2017 and reelected in 2022, represents a break from traditional parties, advocating a centrist, pro-European approach while attempting controversial economic and labour reforms.
• 2018–2019: The Yellow Vest movement represents a diverse grassroots protest against economic inequality, fuel taxes, and the perceived detachment of political elites from ordinary citizens’ concerns.
• 2020–2022: The COVID-19 pandemic severely impacts France, with the government implementing strict nationwide lockdowns, curfews, and eventually a vaccination campaign beginning in December 2020 while providing substantial economic support to businesses and workers.
• 2023: Mass protests erupt against Macron’s pension reform, raising the retirement age from 62 to 64, with millions participating in demonstrations across the country in what becomes one of the largest protest movements in recent French history.
• 2024: A political crisis emerges when Macron dissolves parliament and calls snap elections after poor results in European Parliament elections, leading to the rise of the New Popular Front (NFP), a left-wing coalition, as a major political force. The elections result in a hung parliament with no clear majority, creating unprecedented political instability, including the short-lived government of Prime Minister Michel Barnier that falls in December 2024 after a no-confidence vote.
• France is experiencing growing political polarisation, with increased support for both far-right parties focusing on immigration and national identity and left-wing movements advocating economic justice and environmental protection.
• As a nuclear power, permanent member of the UN Security Council, and founding member of the European Union, France maintains significant global influence while grappling with domestic challenges, including economic inequality, integration of immigrant communities, and climate change adaptation.