A Brief History of Canada

Pre-contact and early European exploration

• Indigenous peoples have lived in what is now Canada for thousands of years. Today’s Indigenous population in Canada includes descendants of the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples.
• The First Nations were made up of diverse nations, each with unique languages, customs, and governance systems, often matrilineal.
• Many communities engaged in extensive trade networks and practised agriculture, hunting, and gathering, all deeply connected to their spiritual beliefs honouring the land.
• The Métis emerged from the intermarriage of Indigenous peoples and European settlers, creating a distinct culture that blended both traditions. Their role in the fur trade was pivotal, and they developed a unique language, Michif, combining Indigenous and European influences. Métis communities were typically organised around family ties, emphasising kinship and resilience.
• The Inuit, living in the Arctic regions, adapted to some of the harshest environments on earth, constructing igloos for winter shelter and using kayaks for hunting. Their lifestyle centred on hunting marine mammals, such as seals and whales, and their social structures relied on strong cooperation within extended family groups for survival.
• 1534: In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European explorers, including John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) from Italy and Jacques Cartier from France, arrive in Canada. Their arrival set off a wave of changes, bringing new technologies and Christianity, and ultimately leading to significant cultural disruption and new diseases, like smallpox and measles, which devastated Indigenous populations.

Colonial expansion and Indigenous resistance

• 1608: Samuel de Champlain, often called the ‘Father of New France’, establishes a settlement in the area now known as Quebec, which becomes the capital of New France. Champlain’s alliances with local Indigenous tribes, such as the Huron-Wendat, against mutual enemies like the Iroquois Confederacy, set the tone for early French-Indigenous relations that were built on trade and mutual benefit.
• 1756: The French and British fight for control of Canada in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, with the British ultimately gaining control after the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). Indigenous nations play critical roles in these conflicts, often aligning with either the French or British to protect their territories.
• 1759: British forces under General James Wolfe defeat French forces in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, leading to British control of Quebec.
• 1763: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 establishes British control over much of North America and recognises the rights of Indigenous peoples to their lands. This proclamation sets a boundary for settlers, but enforcement is often inconsistent.
• 1774: The Quebec Act of 1774 grants religious and language rights to French-speaking Catholics in Quebec but also expands Quebec’s boundaries to include the Ohio River Valley, angering American colonists.
• 1775–1783: The American Revolution leads to an influx of Loyalist refugees to Canada, particularly to Nova Scotia and what is now Ontario. The Loyalists bring new governance ideas and agricultural practices which often clash with Indigenous land use.
• 1791: The Constitutional Act creates Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) and grants limited representative government.
• 1812: The War of 1812 fought between the United States and Britain sees significant battles take place in Canada and contributes to a growing sense of Canadian nationalism. Indigenous nations, particularly Tecumseh and his confederacy, are allies in resisting American expansion.
• 1831: The first Church-run Indian residential school opens, marking the beginning of the Canadian-Indian Residential School System, a network of boarding schools designed to isolate Indigenous children from their cultures and families with the intent to assimilate them into Euro-Christian norms.
• 1840: The Act of Union merges Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, with a single government and legislature.
• 1840s: A wave of immigration to Canada, particularly from Ireland and Scotland, begins alongside the growth of industrialisation and the construction of railways. These changes facilitate greater settlement and resource extraction, leading to increased pressures on Indigenous lands.
• 1867: On 1 July 1867, with the passage of the British North America Act, the Dominion of Canada is officially established as a self-governing entity within the British Empire, uniting Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia into one entity named Canada. 1 July will later become known as Canada Day.
• 1870: The province of Manitoba is established, following the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel. This rebellion was a direct response to the Canadian government’s encroachment on Métis land.
• 1876: The Indian Act is passed, a law that consolidates various laws concerning Indigenous peoples. This act significantly restricts the rights of Indigenous communities and is used to control many aspects of their lives.

Confederation and colonial policies

• 1885: The Northwest Rebellion, led by Louis Riel and the Métis people, breaks out in late March. Numerous battles occur, but ultimately, the Métis people are outnumbered by government forces and surrender by early June, leading to Riel’s execution. The rebellion was driven by disputes over Métis land rights and government neglect. Many Métis families are displaced, losing their lands and livelihoods, which further compounds their cultural and economic struggles.
• 1885: The Canadian Pacific Railway is completed, connecting the country from coast to coast and solidifying national unity.
• 1894: Attendance at day schools, industrial schools, or residential schools becomes compulsory for children of Indigenous families. Due to the structure of communities, residential schools are often the only viable option, resulting in widespread loss of cultural identity and severe psychological and physical abuse that will reverberate through generations.
• 1896: Gold is discovered in Yukon, leading to the Klondike Gold Rush. Roughly 100,000 prospectors migrate to the area over the next two years in search of gold. Indigenous communities face displacement, and traditional hunting and fishing grounds are severely impacted.
• 1905: Saskatchewan and Alberta become the newest provinces of Canada, further expanding Canadian control over the western territories, which often involve negotiating treaties under pressure and land dispossession for Indigenous peoples.
• 1910: The Laurier-Greenway Compromise is reached, establishing French and English instruction in Manitoba schools. This compromise represents ongoing tensions over language rights in Canada.
• 1935: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) is established as a political party advocating for social welfare programmes, laying the foundation for modern social democracy in Canada.

World Wars and sociopolitical change

• 1914–1918: The First World War sees significant Canadian involvement, with thousands of soldiers fighting in Europe and the Canadian Corps achieving major victories at Vimy Ridge and Passchendaele. More than 620,000 Canadians serve in the war, with the country suffering a loss of 60,000 soldiers and 170,000 wounded.
• 1920s: A period of economic growth and social change, including the introduction of women’s suffrage and the rise of jazz and other cultural movements.
• 1930s: The Great Depression hits Canada, leading to mass unemployment and widespread poverty.
• 1931: The Statute of Westminster grants Canada and other Dominions legislative independence, allowing them to make laws without British approval.
• 1939–1945: World War II sees Canada join the war effort, with over 1 million Canadians serving in the military. The country loses 44,000 lives during the war.
• 1945-1947: Post-War Immigration sees Canada welcome many displaced people from Europe, contributing to the country’s cultural diversity and growth.
• 1949: Canada becomes a founding member of NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, reinforcing its commitment to international security during the Cold War era.
• 1962: Canada abolishes racial immigration quotas, shifting towards a points-based immigration system that fosters a more multicultural society.

Post-war development and Indigenous activism

• 1949: Newfoundland joins Canada as the 10th province. Unfortunately, the Terms of Union make no specific provisions for the Innu, Inuit, and Mi’kmaq. This oversight meant that these groups are not legally recognised as Indigenous under the federal Indian Act, depriving them of access to many rights and benefits that other Indigenous communities across Canada receive.
• 1950s–1960s: Significant social and cultural changes take place, including the Quiet Revolution in Quebec, the introduction of universal healthcare, and the growth of the civil rights movement. These changes reshaped Canadian society and governance.
• 1960: The Canadian Bill of Rights is enacted, providing a legal framework for protecting individual rights and freedoms.
• 1960s: The Quiet Revolution in Quebec marks a time of significant social change across Canada. Indigenous communities begin advocating more vocally for recognition, self-determination, and land claims.
• 1967: Canada celebrates its Centennial, marking 100 years since Confederation. The celebrations help foster a greater sense of national identity and pride.
• 1969: The federal government proposes the ‘White Paper’, which seeks to eliminate the special legal relationship between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian state, effectively promoting assimilation. This policy faces strong opposition from Indigenous communities and leaders, leading to the eventual withdrawal of the White Paper.
• 1970: The October Crisis occurs in Quebec, involving the FLQ (Front de libération du Québec), which kidnaps government officials. The War Measures Act is invoked, leading to a significant domestic security response.
• 1972: The ‘Indian Control of Indian Education’ policy is articulated, marking a major shift as Indigenous leaders call for control over their own educational systems.
• 1980: Quebec holds an independence referendum, with 60 percent of votes indicating a preference to remain part of Canada.
• 1981: Patriation negotiations occur, culminating in the 1982 Constitution Act. The negotiations involve key discussions between the federal and provincial governments to reach consensus on Canada’s sovereignty.
• 1982: The Constitution Act is passed, patriating Canada’s constitution and establishing the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
• 1987: Canada signs the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement.
• 1990: The Oka Crisis, an armed standoff between Mohawk protestors, Quebec police, and the Canadian army, marks an important moment of Indigenous resistance against government policies regarding land rights.
• 1995: A second independence referendum is held in Quebec. The campaign to remain part of Canada wins, but the margin of victory is much narrower at 50.5 percent.
• 1999: Nunavut is established, representing an important milestone in Indigenous self-governance and recognition in the Arctic region.

Reconciliation and modern Canada

• 2001: Canada joins the United States-led war in Afghanistan, committing 2,500 troops to the conflict.
• 2005: Same-sex marriage is legalised in Canada, making it the fourth country in the world to do so.
• 2008: The Canadian government establishes the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) to address the legacy of the residential schools.
• 2008: Prime Minister Stephen Harper issues a formal apology for the residential school system, acknowledging the harm caused and validating the experiences of survivors.
• 2011: Canada becomes the only country to repudiate the Kyoto Accord, which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This decision was controversial, given the global effort to combat climate change.
• 2015: Canada celebrates 150 years of Confederation. Justin Trudeau becomes prime minister, focusing on climate change, reconciliation with Indigenous peoples, and diversity and inclusivity.
• 2017: The Canadian government agrees to pay reparations to Indigenous people who were taken away from their families as children and placed into residential schools.
• 2018: Canada becomes the first G7 country to legalise recreational marijuana use, which was seen as a progressive move that aligned with broader attitudes towards personal freedom and social change.
• 2019: Justin Trudeau’s Liberal Party is re-elected to a minority government, reflecting a continued focus on progressive policies amidst growing political challenges.
• 2019: The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (MMIWG) Report is published, highlighting systemic violence against Indigenous women and calling for action to address these injustices.
• 2020: The Covid-19 pandemic hits Canada, killing more than 51,000 people and leading to lockdowns and significant economic damage.
• 2021: The discovery of hundreds of unmarked graves at former residential school sites, starting in Kamloops, BC, brings global attention to the legacy of the Residential School System, sparking renewed calls for accountability and reconciliation.
• 2022: The Freedom Convoy protests take place in Ottawa and across Canada, sparked by COVID-19 vaccine mandates. The federal government invokes the Emergencies Act for the first time in Canadian history to deal with the situation.
• 2022: Pope Francis visits Canada in July to apologise to Indigenous communities for the Catholic Church’s role in the Residential School System, marking a significant step in the reconciliation process.